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Friday, November 9, 2007

Scientists trace cosmic rays to black holes : High energy cosmic rays originate from massive black holes



An international team of scientists said Thursday that they have tracked down the origin of the mysterious "Oh-My-God" particle -- a cosmic ray bearing energies millions of times larger than the most powerful particle accelerator can produce on Earth.

Researchers at the Pierre Auger Observatory, a complex of detectors spread over a Rhode Island-sized slice of the South American prairie, said the most likely source for these ultra-high-energy particles is a type of black hole found at the center of some galaxies.

These violent phenomena are called active galactic nuclei because they both gobble up energy from the surrounding space and spit some out with tremendous force.

"This is a fundamental discovery. We have taken a big step forward in solving the mystery of the nature and origin of the highest-energy cosmic rays," said Nobel laureate James Cronin, a professor emeritus at the University of Chicago and coauthor of the paper published in the current issue of the journal Science.

Cosmic rays are charged particles that can strike with the force of a thrown baseball. Fortunately for humans, Earth's atmosphere serves as a shield, preventing the particles from reaching the surface.

The origin of cosmic rays, particularly the high-energy ones, has been a mystery since their discovery in 1938 by French scientist Pierre Auger. Scientists have only been able to speculate over what tumultuous processes could accelerate particles to energy levels 100 million times more powerful than anything produced at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Illinois, Earth's most powerful accelerator.

One of the chief candidates was black holes at the center of many galaxies, mainly because these are some of the most energetic objects in the universe.

But tracking the source of the particles has been difficult, in part because of their rarity. Each century, only one of the highest-energy particles -- sometimes called Oh-My-God particles -- strikes the atmosphere over any particular spot on Earth.

To research them, "You either need very long-lived scientists or an instrument covering a very large area," said Henry Glass, a Fermilab particle physicist and a coauthor of the paper.

Besides being large, the detector had to be sophisticated enough to spot the cascade of billions of secondary particles that rain down when a high-energy cosmic ray hits the upper atmosphere.

That was the thinking behind the $54-million Auger Observatory, a collaboration of 17 nations and 370 scientists. The facility covers 1,200 square miles of Argentina's Pampa Amarilla, or yellow prairie.

To trace the course of the secondary particles, known as extensive air showers, the observatory employs two types of detectors. One is made up of scores of ultra-pure-water tanks that register the energy and path of arriving secondary particles. The second is a set of telescopes spread around the observatory to spot the ultraviolet fluorescence that occurs when a high-energy particle hits the nitrogen in the upper atmosphere.

"What we're doing is using the atmosphere as an amplifier," Glass said.

The Auger detectors went to work nearly four years ago, even before construction was complete.

So far, Glass said, the detectors have tracked 27 high-energy cosmic ray events. At least 20 led back to previously known active galactic nuclei.

Two of the high-energy events were traced to a single galaxy, Centaurus A -- also known as the Hamburger Galaxy -- about 13.7 million light-years away.

Active galactic nuclei make up only about 1% of all galactic black holes. New ones are made when galaxies collide. The black holes spring to life, gobbling up pieces of the other galaxy.

Tracking the high-energy rays is just the first stage in the new field of cosmic ray astronomy, said Cronin, who conceived the Auger Observatory.

"In the next few years, our data will permit us to identify the exact sources of these cosmic rays and how they accelerate these particles," he said.

Scientists also hope to open a similar observatory in the Northern Hemisphere. A site in Colorado has already been selected, Glass said.


A new study has found that high energy cosmic rays originate from massive black holes in nearby galaxies.


The cosmic rays are the most energetic particles known to man and for decades have had scientists scratching their heads as to where they originate from. Miguel Mostafa, physicist from the University of Utah, stated that "Galaxies which host violent black holes" seem to be the origin of the cosmic rays.


Black holes are tightly packed objects with gravity so strong that nothing can escape them, not even light. The cores of most galaxies contain black holes.


A 17-nation collaboration used the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina, which cost $54 million to make the discovery and report in the study.


The results are set to appear in the new issue of the journal Science on November 9th.


They found that out of the 27 most energetic cosmic rays they detected, 20 came from the direction of active galactic nuclei. This would mean that they would originate from black holes.





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Hawking protagonista en Big Bang, la película


El Profesor Stephen Hawking, físico británico de renombre mundial, está preparado para cambiar las teorías del espacio multidimensional por las tres dimensiones del cine IMAX protagonizando una película que expone sus ideas sobre los orígenes y destino de

La película, Beyond the Horizon (Más allá del Horizonte), tratará algunas de las más abrumadoras teorías expuestas por Hawking y otros cosmólogos, a partir de la idea de que el espacio debe tener más de 11 dimensiones para causar el Big Bang.

Lo que es seguro es que el proyecto lanzará la condición pública de Hawking. Adoptará el papel de protagonista y narrará una pista de audio explicando conceptos cosmológicos que serán traídos a la realidad mediante gráficos avanzados por ordenador.

Su intención es popularizar la ciencia, pero para muchos, el atractivo puede estar también en la capacidad de las películas IMAX 3D de hacer que Hawking y silla de ruedas parezcan salir de la pantalla hacia su audiencia.

El primer libro de Hawking, Breve Historia del Tiempo, está entre los libros científicos más populares jamás escritos, habiendo vendido más de 10 millones de copias en 40 idiomas desde su publicación en 1988. El libro se convirtió en la inspiración para el tema de una película en 1991 y para una serie de televisión estadounidense en 1997.

Desde entonces Hawking se ha convertido en un icono científico, actuando como él mismo en episodios de Los Simpsons y Star Trek.

El argumento de la nueva película es simple - diseñado simplemente para servir como vehículo de las teorías de Hawking acerca de los orígenes del Universo, el espacio y el tiempo.

Hawking es abordado por Olivia, una periodista que cubre temas religiosos para The Times, publicación hermana de The Sunday Times.

Ella está escribiendo una historia sobre cosmología y el significado de la existencia para commemorar el trabajo de Albert Einstein y su Teoría de la Relatividad Especial.

Olivia, que es interpretada por Lina Patel, es una escéptica científica, que cree que la ciencia tiene pocas respuestas a la gran pregunta de la vida.

Sin embargo, su entrevista con Hawking lleva a más de lo que ella había concertado, incluyendo un intenso viaje a través del espacio y del tiempo, volviendo a los orígenes de todo, el Big Bang.

Leonard Mlodinow, físico y antiguo guionista de Star Trek, está trabajando con Hawking en el proyecto de la película.

Mlodinow dijo que también incluiría entrevistas escenificadas con Einstein y otros famosos científicos como Richard Feynman. "Será como si el Día de la Marmota se encontrase con Star Trek", dijo.

"Al final dejamos la ambigüedad sobre si todo fue un sueño o realidad . . .pero lo que mostramos es cómo muchos científicos han desarrollado sus visiones del Universo y nuestro lugar en él durante los pasados 100 años".

Aparte de Hawking, la auténtica estrella de la película probablemente sean las imágenes generadas por ordenador que intentarán simplificar algunas de las ideas cosmológicas más complejas.

Uno de los objetivos de la película será silenciar a los críticos que apuntan que aunque Breve Historia del Tiempo vendió millones de copias, en realidad pocas personas fueron más allá de las primeras páginas.

Esto no es necesariamente un fallo de Hawking. La cosmología moderna está basada en conceptos y cálculos matemáticos y explicarlos en palabras es notoriamente complejo.

Los gráficos por ordenador, por contra, ofrecen más oportunidades para traer a la vida las ecuaciones y conceptos.

Sin embargo, los complejos gráficos demandados por Hawking necesitan mucho más poder de cálculo del que solicitó al Centro Nacional Americano para Aplicaciones de Supercómputo para ayudarle a crear las simulaciones.

También llamó a la NASA, la Agencia espacial estadounidense, cuyos científicos trabajarán con él en la película.

Christopher Harding, productor ejecutivo con Universe Partners, la compañía que está tras el proyecto, dijo que la producción estaba en una etapas tan iniciales que era imposible decir cuando saldría a la luz la película.


Speed plays crucial role in breaking protein's H-bonds


Researchers at MIT studying the architecture of proteins have finally explained why computer models of proteins' behavior under mechanical duress differ dramatically from experimental observations. This work could have vast implications in bioengineering and medical research by advancing our understanding of the relationship between structure and function in these basic building blocks of life.


In a paper published as the cover article of the Oct. 16 issue of the Proceedings of the National Academies of Science (PNAS), the scientists, who work with atomistic models--accurate representations of nature that use fundamental laws of atomistic interactions as their basis--show for the first time the basic rupture mechanisms of protein structures when protein strands unfold in response to pressure.


"We have for the first time simulated the behavior of protein structures under conditions that correspond to those in living biological systems," said Markus Buehler, the Esther and Harold E. Edgerton Assistant Professor in MIT's Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and lead researcher on the team. "All the different types of proteins we studied exhibit two distinct fracture modes that are dependent on the speed at which force is applied. Now we understand that what seemed unrealistic in the earlier computer simulations was actually a consequence of deformation rates and a change in the way hydrogen bonds respond to pressure."


Researchers had puzzled over the vast difference in the amount of pressure required to unfold proteins in experimental versus computer simulation. Earlier computer models forced researchers to apply force at much faster speeds than are possible in the laboratory. As a result, these earlier models predicted that the hydrogen bonds would rupture in response to pressures so small that proteins would be unstable. This clearly isn't the case. Rather, proteins form the structural basis of most biological materials.


It wasn't until the team, using large-scale computing facilities, was able to slow down the application of pressure in their models by a factor of 10 or 20 that they understood the discrepancy. At those speeds, which are much closer to the speeds at which pressure is applied in living cells and tissues, their study showed a change in behavior of the hydrogen bonds.


Explaining the puzzling phenomenon

Buehler and undergraduate student Xuefeng Chen, graduate student Sinan Keten, and Theodor Ackbarow, a graduate student from the University of Stuttgart working in Buehler's lab at MIT, set up a six-month computer simulation study. They worked with two different types of common proteins: vimentin--an alpha-helical filament protein that plays an important role in cellular signaling and stability--and amyloidal fibrils--beta-folded proteins. These protein motifs form the basis of many natural materials, such as hair, hoof, wool, spider silk and the prions that build up in the brains of Alzheimer's patients.


Hydrogen bonds are the basic chemical bonds that hold together proteins, similar to trusses and beams in buildings, and play a key role in controlling the behavior of these structures.


The researchers placed strain on the proteins by pulling on the ends, trying different pressures applied at different rates. They found that the hydrogen bonds in both the alpha-helical-type vimentin proteins and the beta-fibril-type amyloids behaved similarly. At higher rates, hydrogen bonds began to break apart one at a time, earlier in the process. When the pressure was applied more slowly, the bonds held out longer, but when they finally broke, they went three at a time.


"The slow deformation rate in proteins is most relevant in normal biological function, but the fast rate could be important during tissue injuries such as the shock impact in accidents and during formation of fractures in biological tissues," said -Buehler.


This work adds an important piece of knowledge to engineers' understanding of how organic materials work efficiently and provides important insight into how a protein's structure defines its unique mechanical properties. They showed that in order to enhance a protein's mechanical strength, the strands of amino acids should fold so that three or four parallel hydrogen bonds form at each convolution of the protein. Experimental evidence shows that proteins actually do fold so that hydrogen bonds form at the rate of 3.6 bonds per convolution.


In addition to enhanced strength, the protein's geometry also leads to a highly robust structure that provides it with an 80 percent "robustness rate," giving it very high marks from an engineering perspective. (A 100 percent rating could be applied only to a fail-safe structure.) "This 80 percent level of robustness, while simultaneously providing significant mechanical strength, enables the biological structure to minimize the use of materials and make it efficient overall and able to sustain extreme mechanical conditions," said the authors.


By contrast, the lack of robustness in many synthetic materials makes it necessary for engineers to introduce large safety factors that guarantee a structure's functionality under extreme conditions. "For instance, an engineering structure such as a tall building must be able to withstand loads that are 10 times greater than usual, just to protect it in case of one tiny crack," said Buehler. "By studying biological building materials and using a bottom-up structural design and synthesis approach, we hope to discover new ways to create stronger synthetic materials," he said.


"This new understanding could lead to the development of stronger, more robust materials that consume less energy in their manufacturing and transport. Such advances are only possible by including the molecular scale into the engineering design approach," said Buehler.


This work was funded by a National Science Foundation CAREER award, a grant from the Army Research Office, and an MIT Presidential Graduate Fellowship.




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Security warning :The MySpace pages for singer Alicia Keys and other musicians were hacked with a seemingly new type of hack,


The MySpace page of singer Alicia Keys has become the latest vehicle for malware on the Web.


Researchers at the Atlanta, GA-based Exploit Prevention Labs have discovered multiple hacked MySpace pages, including the personal page of the R&B artist. Also hacked were pages for Greements of Fortune, a French funk band, and Dykeenies, a rock band from Glasgow.


When visitors click almost anywhere on these infected site, they are directed to co8vd.cn/s, which appears to be a Chinese malware site. The visitors then see a box on their screen telling them they need to install a special codec to view the video - a legitimate possibility on any site rich in media. But if the visitor clicks 'yes', the site installs software that appears to be a rootkit and DNS changer. This would allow the hackers to take over what you see on your browser and what you download onto your computer.


"They are going to catch a lot of people with this one," said Roger Thompson, chief technology officer of Exploit Prevent Labs. "This is a a very rich media page, as are most MySpace pages. There is every expectation you are going to see a video… It's not at all unreasonable to think you might have to install something."


The MySpace pages for singer Alicia Keys and other musicians were hacked with a seemingly new type of hack, says a security expert.


The MySpace pages for singer Alicia Keys and other musicians were hacked with a seemingly new type of hack, a security expert said Thursday.


Keys' MySpace page and that of others, including a Scottish band and a French band, were flagged by users of Exploit Prevention Labs' LinkScanner software, which blocks pages containing malicious code. The discovery came after users began reporting that Keys' page was blocked, according to Roger Thompson, chief technology officer of LinkScanner.com.


"When we saw it was MySpace and Alicia Keys, we took a good look at it," he said in an interview.


When a visitor views the page, an exploit first attempts to install malware on the visitor's computer if it is not properly patched. Thompson said he was not sure yet which flaw the malware was looking to exploit. If that is not successful, the user is then asked to install a fake codec to view a video. Thompson explains the process in this video.


If both of those should fail, the user is also vulnerable if he or she clicks anywhere on the page that is not a legitimate link--including the ads. "If your mouse slips a bit from what you meant to click, you get the background [link]," which references a site based in China, co8vd.cn, and also attempts to install malicious code. Thompson said he had not seen that kind of "image-background link" before.


The domain is registered to Xiamen Hua Shang Sheng Shi Network Co. Ltd., in the coastal city of Xiamen in Fujian province, according to the China Internet Network Information Centre's WHOIS listing. The company could not immediately be contacted for comment.


Because the attack affected several different pages, including one of a high-profile figure like Keys, Thompson believes this is a hack of MySpace, and not a case of attackers simply uncovering the user names and passwords for those pages.


MySpace said it had already taken care of the problem.


"Individuals who try to phish our members are violating the law and are not welcome on MySpace. We have blocked and removed the source of this phishing attempt and restored the profile," a MySpace spokesperson said by e-mail. Thompson confirmed that the Keys page was now clean, but added, "We'll see what happens over the next few days."


The hackers success with Keys' page, which Thompson described as "lucky," couldn't come at a better time for them--or worse for the musician. Keys, a Grammy Award-winning singer with several platinum albums, will put out her latest release, "As I Am," on Nov. 13.




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Apple Hit with iTunes Lawsuit


Apple Hit with iTunes Lawsuit


What would a week in the tech-world be without another questionable lawsuit against Apple? Apple is already facing a lawsuit for dropping the price of the iPhone and another one filed on the behalf of someone who iBricked his iPhone and is mad.


This time around Apple is being sued by a Florida resident Frederick Black who filed a class-action lawsuit against Apple, claiming the company is attempting to establish a monopoly over the digital media market by "illegally" tying iPods to the iTunes Store.


According to Apple Insider, Black asserts, among many things, that Apple acts unlawfully in not letting its consumers transfer iTunes-purchased content to a non-iPod device or transfer other online vendors' content to their iPods. Also, if consumers happen to lose or break their iPod, the lawsuit asserts users are unable to transfer songs purchased through iTunes to a non-Apple device and have to repurchase an iPod as a result.


There are so many things troubling about this case I don't know where to start. First did someone forget to tell Black about how to add DRM-free files to iTunes that are purchased from online music stores like Amazon music download service or eMusic? ITunes also allows anyone to buy iTunes Plus tracks with no DRM that can be played on any device.


Also, if you feel your Apple iTunes' library is imprisoned by iTunes software there are ways to convert Apple AAC files. There are several programs such as AppleMacSoftware DRM Converter for Mac, Magic AAC to MP3 Converter, and MP3&WAV Converter that will get the job done.


A few years back PC World wrote about how to beat the music download blues which gives some great tips on how frustrated folks can solve their music download problems without getting their attorney involved.





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Ultra-high energy cosmic rays



Cosmic rays believed to start in black holes


Ultra-high energy cosmic rays -- particles that pack the punch of a rifle shot -- make their way to Earth from massive black holes in nearby galaxies, scientists said on Thursday, in a finding that may solve a mystery that has puzzled physicists for decades.


This sub-atomic matter, they believe, likely breaks free just before stars, gas and dust are gobbled up by the gravitational pull of black holes so dense that not even light can escape.


The finding, published in the journal Science, begins to explain how a single particle carrying so much energy could make its way to Earth.


"These cosmic rays have puzzled people for years," said Alexander Kusenko, a professor of physics and astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles, who worked on the study with physicists and astronomers from 17 countries.


"This is a fundamental discovery," said Nobel physics laureate James Cronin of the University of Chicago. "The age of cosmic-ray astronomy has arrived."


Scientists have long suspected that ultra-high energy cosmic rays come from outside our galaxy, but researchers now believe they travel as far as 250 million light-years to Earth. A light year is the distance light travels in one year, or about 5.8 trillion miles.


"This particle has enormous energy. It carries as much energy as the punch of a boxer," Kusenko said in a telephone interview.


"A single particle carries as much energy as a bullet from a rifle," added Katsushi Arisaka, a UCLA professor of physics.


Discovered 95 years ago, cosmic rays are not really rays at all but very energetic particles coming from space into the Earth's atmosphere. Most get their start in our galaxy, such as those from the Sun.


Ultra-high energy cosmic rays are most likely protons or other nuclei. These particles arrive on Earth once per square mile per century, making it highly unlikely one would ever hit a person.


When they reach the Earth's atmosphere, they start smashing into other particles and making new ones.


"Each of these particles hits some other nucleus and produces more energetic particles," Kusenko said. "There is an avalanche-like process that results in a billion particles traveling at nearly the speed of light."


To trace the origins of the particles, the researchers used the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina, the largest cosmic ray observatory in the world, covering 1,200 square miles. It uses a network of 1,600 water tanks to capture the air showers.


This allows the researchers to calculate the trajectory of the particles, which they matched up with a catalog of possible sources, said Miguel Mostafa of the University of Utah.


"The sources are the center regions of very active galaxies which host violent black holes" and are known as "active galactic nuclei," Mostafa said in a statement.


"Now that we found the sources, we are one step closer to knowing what physical process can accelerate particles to these ultra-high energies. Right now, we don't know."





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GAMES :"Call of Duty" with modern combat


"Call of Duty" casts players in modern combat:


The sniper crouches down in the tall grass, then pauses using his scope to draw a bead on an enemy soldier, who staggers back in a spray of blood.


It is easy to mistake the scene for footage from a war movie but it is actually from "Call of Duty 4: Modern Combat", a new video game that is storming its way onto the wish-lists of many armchair soldiers this holiday season.


"Call of Duty 4" casts players in the role of various elite warriors such as U.S. Marines or British SAS in missions that jump around the world and even in time.


It's a departure for the series which has produced three popular World War Two-era games.


Expectations are high in part because the game was made by Infinity Ward, a highly regarded studio that was founded by the folks behind "Medal of Honor", widely held to be the seminal World War Two shooting game.


"We're all huge fans of World War Two and there are still a lot of stories to be told in a World War Two setting but I think we really need to prove to the public that 'Call of Duty' is not just a World War Two franchise. It's a war-based shooter and there are wars at all times," Infinity Ward founder Grant Collier said in an interview.


"There were a lot of doubters when we first announced the game ... none of those people have those concerns any more."


The simExchange, an online prediction market for video game sales, expects "Call of Duty 4" to sell 1.3 million copies this November and December just for Microsoft's Xbox 360, with total sales for all versions to eventually top 6.5 million copies


It's all adding up to another breakout hit for Infinity Ward parent Activision, which has been on a roll this year thanks to games like "Guitar Hero 2".



The game stands to benefit from stumbling by competitors. When Take-Two delayed its sure-fire blockbuster "Grand Theft Auto IV" from its planned October release date to next year, analysts immediately pointed to "Call of Duty 4" as the biggest beneficiary.



The game aims to be THE military action title of its time, supplanting popular but aging shooter staples such as EA's "Battlefield 2" and Ubisoft's "Rainbow 6".



"Is there a threat from any other game this holiday season that could hurt 'Call of Duty' sales? No. 'Call of Duty' is the threat to other games' sales," said simExchange analyst Jesse Divnich.



There is some grumbling among fans that the single-player campaign can run as short as four or five hours on the easiest settings, but where the game is really expected to shine is in its online multiplayer.



Players will be kept busy teasing out the intricacies of an in-depth weapons upgrade system and menu of "perks" that bestow special abilities such as moving silently or bullets that pack extra punching power.



As with most military games, realism was a priority.



"Graphically, the goal was to be most photo-realistic game ever made. We created the first next-gen title ever with 'Call of Duty 2'. That was back when all these art techniques were in their infancy. With 'Call of Duty 2' under their belt, these guys have really mastered them," Collier said.



Developers visited military bases and tagged along for live-fire exercises, and the very people the game portrays are some of the game's biggest fans,



"Talking to World War Two vets, the ones that are still around, they don't play video games and don't really care. But these guys are hot to trot for video games," Collier said of the Marines.



"Call of Duty 4" was released on November 6 for the Xbox 360, Sony PlayStation 3 and Windows-based computers




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AMD Announces High-Performance Chip Set : A technology commonly found in graphics processors to speed performance.


Advanced Micro Devices Inc (AMD.N: Quote, Profile, Research) launched a new graphics chip on Thursday modified to crunch huge amounts of data, with potential customers in financial, engineering and scientific industries.


The new product, called FireStream, gives AMD an answer to a similar initiative launched by rival Nvidia Corp (NVDA.O: Quote, Profile, Research) this year to find broader uses for increasingly powerful graphics chips.


AMD's high-end FireStream 9170 uses a technology commonly found in graphics processors to speed performance.
AMD is introducing a high-performance chip package that uses a technology commonly found in graphics processors, called parallelism, and applies it to general purpose computing, the company announced Thursday.


Parallelism breaks computing work into individual tasks that are worked on by a processor concurrently, or in parallel, instead of one after the other, as many general purpose processors do today.


Parallelism has been in use for a long time in graphics chips from companies like ATI and Nvidia. AMD, which bought ATI last year, said the technology also works well for some types of mathematical computation, so it is using it to speed up other applications.


Called the FireStream 9170, the chip package is aimed initially at high performance computers (HPCs) like those used by scientists for climate research and oil exploration, and by financial analysts for advanced number crunching. But it could also be used more widely in the enterprise for tasks like video-editing and security tasks, AMD said.


The 9170 will be priced at US$1,999, making it one of AMD's most expensive products, but it offers up to 500 gigaflops of computing power, according to AMD, or about 100 times the performance of one of its dual core Opterons. It will be offered in new computers, but it could also be added to an existing server or workstation with a PCI Express 2.0 x16 interface.


Software applications will need to be modified to take advantage of the FireStream's architecture, and AMD will release a software developer kit along with the chip package for application tuning.


AMD calls the computing style Stream Computing, and it began life at ATI before it was bought by AMD. ATI announced the first Stream product last year, but AMD didn't work hard to promote it. It is throwing more weight behind the second iteration.


The FireStream is being manufactured on an advanced, 55 nanometer manufacturing process and will use a "double precision" floating point technology for scientific and engineering calculations. The processor board includes 2G bytes of GDDR3 (Graphics Double Data Rate 3) RAM, a type of memory designed by ATI, and consumes under 150 watts of power, AMD said.


AMD also announced it has joined Hewlett-Packard's HPC Accelerator Program, suggesting the product will be offered in computers from HP.




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